Research
This page is a resource for sharing information about topics of interest for supporting community research in VR/AR in earth science education. Content here will be developed over time with the input of the community.
What works?
It is not yet known what the best tools or approaches are for utilizing VR/AR in education. For example, Selzer et al. (2019) recently showed that low-end VR systems (i.e., smartphones) and high-end VR systems (i.e., Oculus Rift) produced positive learning outcomes relative to the same experience deployed via a computer monitor, but there was no significant difference in learning outcome achieved for the VR deployments. Yet users experienced a significant difference in presence between the two VR systems. This points to the need for better understanding how different factors, such as presence, interaction, and accessibility of VR experiences, will contribute to cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning outcomes. Domain specific research is important since it is likely that different learning needs will emerge in various disciplines. For example, spatial cognition is particularly important in the geosciences. Identifying what is a general affordance of VR/AR for learning versus what elements are domain specific is therefore a key issue for earth science educators.
Pedagogy for VR
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pedagogy and VR »In a content analysis of 35 VR learning tools, Johnston et al. (2018) found that over two-thirds of the experiences effectively implemented an experiential learning pedagogy. Thus most VR design has been focused toward teaching by having students be present in a virtual environment to learn from observation or by performing a desired set of tasks. Fewer VR environments today support learning theories that focus on increasing knowledge and understanding driven by student inquiry and reflection on performance, though about ⅓ of the VR tools exhibited discovery learning as a secondary pedagogy. Designing new VR experiences from the perspective of situated cognition is an area that should be explored further. For example, role playing as a professional geologist could not only impact a student's ability to learn specific content in the context of the real world, but it could potentially also aid in the development of professional skills and build identity as a geoscientist.
Pedagogies Implemented in VR Learning Experiences (Johnston et al., 2018):
- Direct Instruction - student is led through content using drill or structured lessons with immediate feedback to support reinforcement of learning
- Experiential Learning - student builds knowledge, skills, and values through direct experience with exploring or visiting environments
- Discovery Learning - student learns concepts through inquiry-driven personal discovery that often builds on prior knowledge and requires problem solving, decision making, and strategy
- Situated Cognition - students develop context-specific knowledge and practice embedded within a community as observers or actors through role playing, such as professional practice
- Constructivism - learners gain knowledge and understanding through reflection on experiences in ways that are personally meaningful in environments that support application of knowledge
Research Groups Working on VR/AR in Geoscience
If your research group works on virtual field experiences, contact us to add your information to this list.
Publications and Resources
Annotated Bibliography
(Contributed by Kyra Hagge, PhD Student, East Carolina University)
Ahn, S.J., J. Fox, K.R. Dale, J.A. Avant (2014) Framing Virtual Experiences: Effects on Environmental Efficacy and Behavior Over Time. Communication Research 42(6): 839-863
Main Topics: Environmental behavior, framing
Through cutting a tree or growing a tree in virtual reality, the authors explore the effect of loss vs. gain frames on pro-environmental behavior. They find that both frames (gain as well as loss) lead to a significant reduction in paper consumption (the behavior after the experience has taken place). The impact of the tree growing experience lasted for one week after the experiment. Furthermore, higher levels of interactivity coresponded to greater environmental behavior intentions and self-reported behavior.
Ahn, S.J., J. Bostick, E. Ogle, K.L. Nowak, K.T. McGillicuddy, J.N. Bailenson (2016) Experiencing Nature: Embodying Animals in Immersive Virtual Environments Increases Inclusion of Nature in Self and Involvement with Nature. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 21(6): 399–419
Main Topics: Embodyment, environmental attitude, knowledge retention
The researchers test whether two different embodiment experiences have an effect on the participants' issue involvement regarding environmental risk. They use a parallel mediation model, in which spatial presence and body transfer both influence a variable called "inclusion of nature in self (INS)". This variable reduces the temporal distance and increases issue involvement.
Embodying the animal lead to greater perception of spatial presence, body transfer and inclusion of nature in self. Nevertheless, only body transfer had an influence on INS, the researchers did not find a significant effect of spatial presence.
Allcoat, D., A. von Muhlenen (2018) Learning in virtual reality: Effects on performance, emotion and engagement. Research in Learning Technology 26:1-13
Main Topics: Spatial learning and memorization
Participants in this study are learning on a 3D model of a plant cell (Lifeliqe Museum on HTC Vive), the control groups are watching a video or screenshots (textbook style). The authors find that participants in the VR condition perform better in a learning test (17 questions, tested for knowledge, remembering and understanding) compared to the control conditions.
Bailey, J., J.N. Bailenson, A. Stevenson Won, J. Flora, K.C. Armel (2012) Presence and Memory: Immersive Virtual Reality Effects on Cued Recall. Proceedings of the International Society for Presence Research Annual Conference
Main Topics: The influence of presence on memory, environmental awareness and behavior
This study uses the 3D model of a shower. While the people are in the shower, they get a set of 15 water conservation principles to remember. After the VR experience, they have to recall those (without and with cues). The study finds a negative link between the perceived presence in VR and cued recall, therefore indicating that VR can also be distracting. However, because the tasks are only marginally related (only the principle about conserving water while showering is related to the experience) this does not necessarily discredit VR as a tool to increase memorization.
Bailey, J.O., J.N. Bailenson, J. Flora, K.C. Armel, D. Voelker, B. Reeves (2015) The Impact of Vivid Messages on Reducing Energy Consumption Related to Hot Water Use. Environment and Behavior 47(5): 570-592.
Main topics: Influence of vivid messages on behavior, environmental behavior and awareness
The authors test the effect of a set of different conditions/messages on the hot water consumption of the participants. In the experience, the participants are in a shower, where they can only adjust the water temperature. If they increase the temperature, they see the amount of coal used displayed (with an avatar depicting the participants in the personal condition). The control condition does not see the amount of coal, only a message on the wall which tells them how much coal they've used. The researchers find a significant positive effect on the water temperature in the behavioral experiment (people have to wash their hands before and after the VR experience), but only if the message is vivid (people see the coal). Personalization does not have a significant effect.
Herrera F, Bailenson J, Weisz E, Ogle E, Zaki J (2018) Building long-term empathy: A large-scale comparison of traditional and virtual reality perspective-taking. PLoS ONE 13(10): e0204494
Main topics: Empathy, long-term effects, perspective taking
This paper uses an experience to elicit empathy in the participants and compares the effect of different levels of perspective taking on empathy. The topic addressed is homelessness. People who become homeless in VR are more likely to support a petition to decrease homelessness. In a follow-up study they compare different levels of immersion and do not find significant effects on the empathy evoked.
Klippel, A., J. Zhao, D. Oprean, J.O. Wallgrun, C. Stubbs, P. La Femina, K.L. Jackson (2019) The value of being there: toward a science of immersive virtual field trips. Virtual Reality doi.org/10.1007/s10055-019-00418-5
Main Topics: Virtual field trips, environmental awareness, spatial learning, geosciences learning
Participants in this study take a virtual field trip before they embark on the actual field trip, the researchers therefore are able to measure the positive influence of VR on the knowledge necessary for the field trip (basically what students should know after the field trip). The VR participants looked at outcrops in the area and received a virtual guided tour resembling the one in the actual field trip. They find a positive effect of the virtual field trip compared to the actual field trip, and argue that VR is an important addition to the curriculum. The authors bring up the issue of novelty, participants may report a better experience because they have never been in touch with the technology before and might be in awe.
Markowitz, David M., R. Laha, B.P. Perone, R.D. Pea, J.N. Bailenson (2018) Immersive Virtual Reality Field Trips Facilitate Learning About Climate Change. Frontiers in Psychology 9:2364
Main topics: Virtual field trips, environmental awareness, spatial learning, retention of information, influence of embodiment
This paper uses the Stanford Ocean Acidification experience to teach college students about the ocean before they go on a real field trip. The design virtual- real- virtual- real is evokes a heightened attitude toward the environment. Through spatial learning and embodiment (in the second VR sequence the participants become a coral and can witness the effects of ocean acidification on their own body), the students' knowledge on the topic increases. The paper argues that VR is helpful to initiate information-seeking and inquisitiveness.
Ragan, E.D., D.A. Bowman, K.J. Huber (2012) Supporting cognitive processing with spatial information presentations in virtual environments. Virtual Reality 16(4):301-314.
Main Topics: Memory, spatial learning
Study to look at the benefits of spatial displays on learning. In the experiment, the researchers test whether participants are able to remember more cards if they are presented in a virtual environment. They find that wheras people memorize more of the cards in the VR environment, spatial presentation did not improve the task performance or mental workload. However, a more meaningful integration of the task in the virtual space could improve task performance, similar to what Bailey et al. 2012 found.
Segovia K.Y., J.N. Bailenson (2009) Virtually True: Children's Acquisition of False Memories in Virtual Reality. Media Psychology 12(4), 371-393
Main topics: Influence of immersive VR on memory and reality-mixing, knowledge retention
The children in this study are use one of two different experiences, one where they swim with whales and one where they shrink to the size of their stuffed animal and interact with it. Younger children are more likely to create false memories based on the experience, they report some of the experiences they had in VR as their own. The authors argue that with increasing media richness, the difficulty to distinguish between reality and virtual world increases.
Yung, R., C. Khoo-Lattimore (2019) New realities: a systematic literature review on virtual reality and augmented reality in tourism research. Current Issues in Tourism 22(17): 2056-2081
Main topics: Literature review on VR/AR in tourism research, influence of visual/spatial environments on decision making, transfer of skills (e.g. for tour guides)
In this study, the authors review literature on VR/AR and the influence of this technology on the tourism industry. Even though this is not particularly relevant for learning per se, they report various findings which have been found in education literature as well. For example, people who experience a destination through VR have a more positive attitude towards this destination. Also, in tourism education the authors find studies demonstrating the positive correlation between presence and higher levels of cognitive perfomance and emotional development. People often struggle with the application of the technology. This has to be taken into account when deploying an experience without guidance (someone leading through the set-up). Instruction for tourism-learning experiences can be time consuming (different levels of technological literacy) and therefore points towards another challenge regarding implementation.
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